Реферат: Топики по английскому языку
The ShirkovParish.
To the north — west of Tver among TheValdai Hills, which are covered with
confferous and deciduous forest, there is along chain offour lakes, formed
from the river <st1:place w:st=«on»>Volga</st1:place>:the Sterzh, Vseloog, Peno and Volgo. These are the upper
reaches of the <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>great Russian</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>River</st1:PlaceType> <st1:place w:st=«on»>Volga</st1:place>. Until the middle of the 19th centory
the river was not abundant in water, but in <st1:metricconverter ProductID=«1843 a» w:st=«on»>1843 a</st1:metricconverter> dam was built belowthe
present Volgo lake which caused this formationof lakes (The dam was recon -
structed in 1943).
The <st1:place w:st=«on»>Upper Volga</st1:place>is interesting not only for its picturesque suroundings but
also for its reach history. In earlyprehistoric times — mainly during the
Stone Age and the Broze Age — this area wasalready populated by hunters and
fishermen.
The ancient Pinns were the firstinhabitants of this territory for many
centuries. From the 9th century the Slavtribe, Lreeveech lived here, but from
the 12th century onwards the Novgorod Slavcommunity was the main population .
This land has witnessed many important eventsof our history such as internal
feuds between Princes; Khan Batu«sinvasion; and the long and stubborn struggle
against Lithuanian and Polish invaders. Theoldest paths of trading ran across
this territory. The land knew periods offlourishing as well as periods of de-
vastation. Nowdays it is a picturesque regionideal for rest and tourism. Many
old relicts and monuments of various ages havebeen well preserved.
One of the most beautiful spots of the <st1:place w:st=»on">Upper Volga</st1:place> is on the Vseloog lake .
In ancient times there were settlements and aheathen temple here. Today one
can see the Shirkov Parish. For threecenturies it has been standing in full
harmony with the rivers, boundless fore4st andvast skies. Nature and archi-
tecture in harmony.
The origin of the name of grave — yard isunknown. The unique Shirkiov ar-
chitecture was created by nameless masters. Inan old contract, drawn up by
the carpenter«s team, who were to buildthe church, there was the following
recommendation: » Build a temple as largeand beautiful as your senses command"
These words show the character of Russianwooden architecture at its best. The
ability of our ancestors to select the sitesfor their settlements and churches
is also well known.
The wooden Ioan Predtechy church is theoldest monument in the Shirkon Pa —
rish. It is considered to be finest piece ofnational wooden architecture. The
best traditions of Russian carpenters areexemplified in this masterpiece. It
is a peasant«s spacimen of beauty born indaily work and in permanent contact
with the field, forest, rivers and villagehouses. Creatness and simplicity ,
power and elegance go together simultaneously.
The Ioan Predtechy church is the mostinteresting wooden tier church of the
» tetrehedron on a tetrehedron"style. As far back as 1887 it was noted that
" as for Russian architecture, theexterior of the church is unusual and of
great interest". This style of church waspopular in former times. Thus we
known about the existance of similar churchesin the Nilowa Stolbenskaya her —
mitage from the middle of the 17th centory.
According to the certifecate compiled bythe priest of Shirkov church Illy-
nsky, in respose to a census, offered by theEmperor of the Archaeological Co-
mission of the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>Academy</st1:PlaceType> of <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Arts</st1:PlaceName></st1:place>in 1880s on the basis of the clerge register (
which unfortunately has not been preserved),the church is dated from 1694.
<span Courier New";mso-fareast-font-family: Batang;mso-ansi-language:EN-US;mso-fareast-language:KO;mso-bidi-language:AR-SA">
THE UNIVERSITIES in <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:country-region w:st=«on»>IRELAND</st1:country-region></st1:place>.
In the turbulent centures thatfollowed the Norman invasi-
on, several efforts were made to establish universities in
<st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Ireland</st1:country-region></st1:place>. In 1311, John de Leah,Archbishop of Dublin, obtained
a bull from Pope Clement V authorizinghim to establish a uni-
versity in <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Dublin</st1:City></st1:place>, but he died before anithing could beaccom-
plished. An attempt was made in 1465to found a university in
<st1:place w:st=«on»>Drogheda</st1:place>;this was to be endowed, as far as the Prliament of
the England Pale could do it, with allthe rights and privile-
ges of the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>university</st1:PlaceType> of <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Oxford</st1:PlaceName></st1:place>.The parliament concerned was
presided over by Tomas, Earl ofDesmond; two ears later he was
attainted and beheaded, his estateswere confiscated, and once
more the idea of a university came tonothing.At last,in 1591,
the idea was realized.
TRINITY COLLEGE <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>DUBLIN</st1:City></st1:place>
In that year a group of <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Dublin</st1:City></st1:place> citixentsobtained a char-
ter from Queen Elizabeth I incorporating <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Trinity</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>as a
mater universitatis. By this term theyenvisaged that a group
of university colleges would stermfrom Trinity in the conti-
nental and English style;owing to thecourse of Tudor and sub-
sequent Irish history that ideal hasnot yet been realized.The
Corporation of <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Dublin</st1:City></st1:place> granted to the new foundation the lands
and dilapidated buldings of theMonastery of All Hallows,lying
south-east of the sity walls Subscriptions were raisedfrom
among the principal gentleman of each country, whohad been
invited to assist the new college to the benefit of the whole
country, whereby Knowlege, Learning andCivility may be incre-
ased,to the banishment ofbarbarism,tumults and disorderly li-
ving from among them. A number of landed estates were secured
to the College out of the confiscationswhich followed the de-
feat northen Earls.
The university was designed to encourage English culture
in <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Ireland</st1:country-region></st1:place>,and to promote the reformedreligion in it's statu-
tory form,so that it's establishmentafforded no opportunities
for higher education to recusant bodies, whether Catholic or
Dissenting. The college survived thestorms of the Cromwellian
and Revolution periods, and settled down as the university of
the colonial ascendancy, taking it'stone from the new Whig
society,mainly mercantile and nouveauriche,which had been put
in power by the Williamite victory. Yet even in the religious
and political doldrums of the eghteenthcentury, the true uni-
versity and liberal spirit survived in Trinity,and it's alum-
ni included Swift,Berkeley, Bruke,Goldsmith, Grattan,and Wolf
Tone. Towards the close of the century there was an awakening
sense of independence and of patriotism in what had been a
colonial minority, with a consequent relaxation of the penal
code which had discriminated, inreligion and culture, against
the native Irish and the Anglo-Irish majority; and after the
passage of the Catholic ReliefAct,1793, Trinity abandoned the
exclusive character it had hith ertoborne.
Since 1947, the College has received substantial grants
from the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Irish</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>State</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>.Recent years have brought to the Univer-
sity a great diversity of students,wuth many of the undergra-
duates coming from Great Britan andfrom overseas.
The University is represented bythe Chancellor,Vice-Chan-
cellor and Senate,whose main functionis to confer degrees.The
College is governed by the Board ofTrinity College.The assent
of the Board is required to all professional chairs and other
academic posts, and determines detailsof courses and examina-
tions. The Povost of the College isnominated by the Goverment
from one of three names submitted bythe Board. Except in this
last respect,the University and theCollege enjoy complete au-
tonomy. The College Library is GreatBritan and <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Ireland</st1:country-region></st1:place>.
THE <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>NATIONAL</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>UNIVERSITY</st1:PlaceType>of <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:country-region w:st=«on»>IRELAND</st1:country-region></st1:place>.
Under the Queen’s College (<st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Ireland</st1:country-region></st1:place>)Act,1845,Colleges were es-
tablished by the Goverment at <st1:City w:st=«on»>Cork</st1:City>, Galway and <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Belfast</st1:City></st1:place>,topro-
vide higher education on anon-denominational basis. Ufortuna-
tely, the character of these Colleges were felt to be out of
accord with Catholic educationalprinciples, and after a storm
of public controversy they werecondemned by the Hierarchy.
In 1854,the Catholic University ofIreland was established
by the Hierarchy, who invited John Henry Newman to be it's
first Rector. Newman, imbued with theliberal principlesembo-
died in his celebrated Idea of a University, was not quite at
home amid the realities of Irishpolitical and religious cont-
roversy, and his brave experimentfailed. As 'Newman's Univer-
sity' was not recognized by theState,it could not confer deg-
rees,neither did it have any publicendowment. Coriously, it's
best success was in medicine, forthe <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType> of <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Surgeons</st1:PlaceName></st1:place>and
the Apothecaries’ Hall recognized thecourses of study pursued
by the Catholic University Medical School students and admit-
ted them to the College and Hall examinations, thus to become
registered medical practitioners.
The <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Royal</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> was founded in 1879. This wasmerely
an examining body, set up mainly for the purpose of enabling
the students of the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Catholic</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>to obtain recognized
degrees. In 1883,the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Catholic</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>,henceforthto be cal-
led <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType>,<st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Dublin</st1:City></st1:place>, was placed in the charge of the
Society of Jesus, who maintained itsuccesfully until the pas-
sing of the Irish Universities Act,1908.This Act provided for
the dissolution of the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Royal</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>and of Queen’s College,
<st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Belfast</st1:City></st1:place>,and for the foundation in their stead of two new Uni-
versities, one in <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Belfast</st1:City></st1:place> which was to become Queen's Univer-
sity, and the other, in <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Dublin</st1:City></st1:place>,the NationalUniversity of Ire-
land. The two universities areself-governing institution ope-
rating under charter, autonomous asregards policy and admini-
stration, and appointing their ownacademic and administrative
staffs.
The National University of Irelandis a federal university,
with a central office in <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Dublin</st1:City></st1:place> and threeConstituent Colleges:
<st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType> <st1:City w:st=«on»>Dublin</st1:City>,<st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType><st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Cork</st1:City></st1:place>,University
College Galway; and one <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Recognized</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType>,St. Patrick’s <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:State w:st=«on»>Col-</st1:State></st1:place>
lege, Maynooth. Maynooth is a seminaryfor the training of Ca-
tholic'clergy. It was founded in 1795 and endowed by a Gover-
ment who, chastened by the French Revolution, recognized the
conservative and conserving character ofthe Irish priesthood.
In 1845 the Maynooth College Board of Trustees was incorpora-
ted by Statute, and in 1899 was investedby the Holy See with
authority to confer degrees inPhilosophy, Theology, and Canon
Law.
The <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>National</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>itself does not teach; the courses
for degrees are conducted by theColleges which, in practice,
lay down their own programme and settheir own examinations.
Courses are given in the variousfaculties,with certain excep-
tions,at each of the ConstituentColleges; and in Arts, Philo-
sophy and Sociology, Celtic Sudents, and Science at Maynooth.
Courses in Dairy Science are given only at <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>
<st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Cork</st1:City></st1:place>;coursesin General Agriculture and Veterinary Science are
(outside of <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Trinity</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType>)confined to <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>
Dublin.By the University Education(Agriculture and Dairy Sci-
ence) Act, 1926, the Royal College of Science and the Albert
<st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Agricultural</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType>were Transferred to <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>
<st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:City w:st=«on»>Dublin</st1:City></st1:place>,which was empowered to continue the functions formerly
fulfilled by these institutions.
Like <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Trinity</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType>,the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>National</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> receives,
through the Department of Education,financial assistance from
the State in the form of annualgrants-in-aid, as well as non-
recurrent grants for capital purposes.Each of the Colleges is
a complete organism,with it's ownGoverning Body and full con-
trol of it's own finances.
* * *
RURAL DOMESTICECONOMY SCHOOLS.
There are twelve residental schoolsof Rural Domestic Eco-
nomy,seven of which operate under theDepartment of Agricultu-
re and Fisheries. The schools areprivately owned,but the Sta-
te subsidized and subject to inspection in the same way as
agricultural colleges.Students areadmitted from the age of 15
upwards.The course runs from Septemberuntil June.The syllabus
comprises theoretical and practicalinstrustion in the follow-
ing subjects: — Poultrykeeping, Dairing,Cookery, Housewifery,
Dressmaking, Laundry, Arts and Crafts, Phisiology, Higiene,
First Aid and Home Nursing, Horticulture and general subjects.
At the end of the course, astandart examination compris-
ing written,oral and practical tests, isheid and certificates
are awarded to successful candidates.About600 young women at-
tend these schools annually. Over 250 scholarships awarded by
<st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>County</st1:PlaceType> <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Committes</st1:PlaceName></st1:place>of Agriculture, each year, are tenable at the
schools. In addition, capitation grants are payable for each
eligible pupil.Some pupils who completethe session at a rural
domestic economy school proceed to other studies, for careers
in Poultry Specialization, Farm HomeManagement, Domestic Sci-
ents,Hotel Management,or Nursing.Thecourse at the schools is,
however, a good training for all futurehousewives.
The Munster Institute, <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Cork</st1:place></st1:City>, under theDepartment of Agri-
culture and Fisheries, conductsadvanced courses for selected
pupils from rural domestic economy schools:-
1.A three year course in FarmHome Menagement.
2.A three year course in PoultrySpecialization.
3.A one year course in PoultryHusbundry.
Girls who complete the three years courses are employed as
instructors by the Country Committees of Agroculture, or as
teachers. Girls who cmplete the year's course in Poultry Hus-
bundry are employed as technicians inthe poultry industry.
ART SCHOOLS.
The Metropolitan School of Artbegan as an academy esta-
blished in 1746 by the Royal DublinSociety, for the promotion
of drawing and painting. During thefirst hundred years of the
School's existence,instruction wasfree of charge;and the four
departments of figuredrawing,landscape and ornament,architec-
ture,and modeling,provided coursesuseful to sculptors, embro-
iderers, weavers, printers,silversmith and workers in other
crafts.In the ninteenth century, theSchool was successively
under the control of the Royal Dublin Society, the Board of
trade, the Department of Science andArt,and the Department of
Agroculture and Technical Instruction for <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Ireland</st1:place></st1:country-region>.Following
it's transfer to the last-named body,classes were established
in the principal artistic crafts,including metalwork and ene-
melling, mosaic, embroidery and woodcarving. The School also
aquired a high reputation for it's part in the developmentof
stained glass and for the felicitousinfluence which,under the
guidance of Sir William Orpen, it exerted on painting in Ire-
land. In 1924, control was assumed bythe Department of Educa-
tion; an extension and development ofthe School, was establi-
shed.
The <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>National</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>of Art is the principal institution
of the sistem of Art Education in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Ireland</st1:place></st1:country-region>as administered by
the Departmentt of Education. It's general purpose is to pro-
mote the advancement of Art,toadvocate and maintain the high-
est artistic values in nationalculture, and to combine artis-
tic design with practical skill in the interests of industry.
There are three schools; the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>School</st1:PlaceType> of <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Design</st1:PlaceName></st1:place>, the School of
Painting and the <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>School</st1:PlaceType> of <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Sculpture</st1:PlaceName>,witha <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Preliminary</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>School</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>,
which includes an Upper and a Lower Division. In ths way, the
College provides for the study of theFine Arts and of the De-
corative Arts and Crafts, and for thetraining of Art teachers
eligible for employment in post-primary schools. The College
has working arrangements with University ColIege Dublin and
with the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Bolton</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Street</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>School</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> of Technology. Itolso maintains
liaison with the National Library,the<st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>National</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>Museum</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>, and the
National Gellery of <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Ireland</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
Outside <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Dublin</st1:place></st1:City>,whole-time day course and part-timeevening
courses are provided ay theCrawford School of Art, <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Cork</st1:place></st1:City>, and
the Schools of Art in Limerick and <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Waterford</st1:place></st1:City>.
To foster the study of theHistory of Art, Miss Sarah Pur-
ser and Sir John Purser Griffithestablished,in 1934,two equal
funds, one to be administered by <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Trinity</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>College</st1:PlaceType></st1:place>,and the other
by University College Dublin, the income from which provides
Travelling Scoolarships. and prizes to be competed for every
year, alrtenately in each University. Extra-mural courses are
given at University CollegeDublin,which College also provides
courses leading to a degree inthe History of European Paint-
ing taken with another subject. Lectures arealso provided,
mainly for post-primary students, inthe National Gallery.
THE CONQUERING <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>NORMANS</st1:place></st1:City>.
Edward the Confessor died in January,1066.On Christmas Day in the same
year William the Conqueror was crowned king inWestminster Abbey. It had been
a terrible year for Englishmen. From the verybeginning of it they had feared
that evil things were going to happen, andwhen a comet began to flame in the
sky, early in the summer, their fears wereincreased. To all Englishmen it
seemed to foretell defeat. And defeat cameupon them when Duke William landed
at Pevensey, in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Sussex</st1:country-region>,and advanced to <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Hastings</st1:place></st1:City>.King Harold rushed to meet
him, but he and many of his faithful thaneswere slain. The bravest of them
gathered to make a last desperate fight roundthe English standarts ,and when
they fell the days of English liberty wereover for a long period.On the very
spot where Harold and his men made their laststand the Norman conqueror built
Battle Abbey to commemorate his victory. Ifyou go there today, you will be
shown the place where Harold fell.
It was a hard time for Englishmen. AsWilliam marched slowly by a round-
about way to <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>London</st1:place></st1:City>, his men plundered the village soterribly that it took
them many years to recover. His soldierssearched everywhere for food and all
the things that an army needs. Villagers,flying in terror to the woods, saw
their cattle driven off,their stored corn andhay carted away,and their houses
burnt. This was the way in which William hopedto terrify Englishmen into sub-
mission. He was successful. On ChristmasDay,1066,he was crowned king of the
English by the Archbishop of <st1:City w:st=«on»>York</st1:City>in <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Westminster</st1:place></st1:City>Abbey.
Straightway he began to drive Englishnobles from their lands,for he said
they had treacherously fought against theirtrue king. And in their places he
put Normans, who despised the English, andtreated them cruelly. So in the
year 1067,if you had been travelling aboutthen, you would have seen parties
of <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Normans</st1:place></st1:City>riding through the country-side to take possession of the lands
that William had given them in returm fortheir help at Hastings.These men ,
of couse,had Norman names, and if you look ata map of <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>England</st1:place></st1:country-region>today, you will
see that some villages are still called by thenames of the Norman lords to
whom William gave them, for example, NortonMandeville in Essex.Some English-
men nowadays have Norman names, such asHarcout, <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Montgomery</st1:place></st1:City>,Mantague.For
a long time after the battle of Hastings noone who wished to be considered a
gentleman spoke English;even little boys atschool learnt their lessons in
French, so that, when they grew up, they mightbe able to keep company with
the rulers of the land and pretend they were <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Normans</st1:place></st1:City>.
Let us imagine that we are visiting avillage when it is new master rides
into it.Our old English master, our thane, isdead, for he went off with his
soldiers when Harold called for his helpagainst the foreigner, and fell be-
side his king on the day of the battle ofHastings.All though the winter the
villagers have starved, for they have hadlittle corn & meat to live on,since
William,s army went past on it is way toLondon.Their houses are in a ruinous
condition, And the very barns have gone, forsome of them were burnt & others
pulled down to supply fuel for Norman campfires.The old mill wheel has not
turned since the village was sacked, for eventhe dam, which supplied the <st1:State w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>wa-</st1:place></st1:State>
ter, was hacked to bits by the soldiers.Sowhen the new master rides into the
village, he sees lean sterving men, women andchildren.There are fire-black-
ened ruins of English homes all around.Somesmall patches of growing corn can
be seen, for even in starvation time men mustsave some seed for the next crop.
But the fields are small compared with whatthey were.
How we hate this new-comer!How we shouldlike to take vengeance on him and
his men for all our sufferings, & for allthe fathers & brothers who will ne-
ver return from <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Hastings</st1:place></st1:City>!But we dare do nothing, & saynothing.We can see that
this man is no coward, for he rides into themiddle of us, & looks all straight
in the face.Rising in his stirrups, he callsin French: " I would have you
know that King William has given me theselands & that you are my tenants now.
Do your part faithfully, & I shall domine.But if any man checks me in my just
rights, let him beware".No Englishmanunderstands a word, but everybody sus-
pects what the speaker means well enough.
He makes his way to the thane's house,& there he meets the window & her
daughter accompanied by the steward.He explainsthe lady that a small piece of
land out of her husband's estate will be leftto her.She knows that she will
be very poor for the rest of her days, but sheis to proud to ask for anything
more and withdraws in silence with herdaughter.
Then the <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Norman</st1:place></st1:City> turns to the steward and calls for hisaccounts.He hopes
to see out all the old thane's rightscarefully set there; how he received so
much hay every year from one man, so much cornfrom another, and so much meat
from a third; and how Aelfgar and men like himwork once a week for him all
the year round and do extra work in harvest;and how Gurth and his equals do
not work for the thane, but pay so much food.When the accounts are brought,
he listens carefully as the stewards axplainseach entry, for he wishes to
know exactly how much the land that the kinghas given him is worth. The ste-
ward, of couse, says that the value has gonedown very much in the last year.
A talk follows till far on into the night,and many questions are put by
the master. How much land is there suitablefor ploughing? How much of it did
the old thane keep for his own use? How manybushels of corn come from each
acre? Do the villagers know how to manure anddrain the land properly? Is
there any grassland that could be made to growextra supplies of corn? «For,»
says lord, «my soldiers must have plentyto eat». «Yes,» says thesteward,
«there is much land fit for thepurpose.But do you propose to make the
villagers work on this and do their other workas well? Remember, Sir, that
there are fewer of them than there were».The <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Norman</st1:place></st1:City>replies that he intends
his villagers to do not only this, but muchmore besides. Indeed he goes so
far as to say that the men like Gurth, whonever worked but only paid food,
shall now both pay and work, for more landmust be cultivated. And he adds
that he intends to increase the amounts ofmeat, hay, eggs, cheese, butter
and other things that the villagers pay. Sothe stewards returns home in a
thoughtful and unhappy state, for he sees hardtimes coming for his friends
and does not like telling them about the extrawork that they will have to do.
The <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Norman</st1:place></st1:City>also goes to bed, but not until he has gone round the house with
his chief follower, and posted sentinels; forhe has no wish to be murdered
in his sleep by his new servants, as hashappened to some of his friends.He
and his followerds do not thing much of theold house. The old English thanes
did not make their houses strong for defence,for they had nothing to fear
from their villagers. But the <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Norman</st1:place></st1:City> says:«We must have a safer placethan
this to sleep in, or our throats wiil all becut some night».So the steward
wiil hear if another piece of work for hisfriends in the village to do.
In the morning the <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Norman</st1:place></st1:City> gets up early and goes on horsebackround his
land accompanied by the steward who listens toall his plans. He is told to
have the mill dam repaired by next harvest,and a new whell put in. Then the
master looks round for a position for a newhouse. He means to make it by
throwing up a mound of earth and building awooden tower on top of it. It is
to be surrounded by a wall of earth and aditch. He marks out the boundaries
at once and orders the steward to have thedigging commenced. Next he goes to
the woods to look for timber. After theinspection he says:«Let me hear axes
at work here when I come round tommorow».As he rides home he sees the old
village church. The roof lets the rain in, andsome of the timber of which
the building is made rotting away. Heindignantly says it's more like a broken-
down stable than a house of God and swears inthe name of Saint Valerie who
sent the <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Normans</st1:place></st1:City>a fair wind for their invasion, that he will build a stone
church.
He has not been long back at the hallbefore Gurth and his friends ask to
see him. When they are admitted to the hall,they say they have heard the word
that is going round, how every villagers, bigand little, is to work on the new
fields, which the lord is going to fence in,and is to pay more food than ever
before. They say that this is against thecustom of the village. They paid food
to the old thanes, because King Alfred orderedtheir forefathers to do so. But
they never laboured like serfs on any man'sland. They are free men, and when
they have paid their dues, as King Alfredordered, no man can ask them for mo-
re.
This bold speech has a terrible result. Thenew lord rises from his seat.
His eyes are blazing with rage, and thevillagers fear nothing less than death
at the hands of the surrounding soldiers." Custom !" the master shouts, «Cus-
tom! You talk to me about custom as though itruled all. I and my friends won
this land by the sword from you and traitorslike you, who were in arms against
your lawful King William. Traitors lie at themercy of their conquerors and
must be punished for their treachery. Customwill not protect you. Get you go-
ne. Soldiers! Clear the hall».
For many days there is rage in the heartsof the villagers, for the smaller
men like Aelfgar are ground to poverty by thenew lord. Thus they feel the re-
sults of the Norman Conquest. All English feelthem as well, and for five
years to come there are angry rebellions indifferent parts of the land.
University Education
There are 44 universities (not counting theOpen University) in <st1:country-region w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Britain</st1:place></st1:country-region>.
Althoughthe Goverment is responsible for providing about 80 per cent of
universitiesincome it does not control their work or teaching nor does it have
directdealings with the universities.The grants are distributed by the Secreta-
ry ofState for Education and Science.
The English universities are: Aston (<st1:City w:st=«on»>Birmingham</st1:City>), <st1:City w:st=«on»>Bath</st1:City>, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Birmingham</st1:City>, <st1:place w:st=«on»>Bradford</st1:place>
<st1:City w:st=«on»>Bristol</st1:City>, Brunel (<st1:City w:st=«on»>London</st1:City>), <st1:City w:st=«on»>Cambridge</st1:City>,City (<st1:City w:st=«on»>London</st1:City>), <st1:City w:st=«on»>Durham</st1:City>,<st1:country-region w:st=«on»>East Anglia</st1:country-region> ,<st1:place w:st=«on»>Essex</st1:place>,
<st1:City w:st=«on»>Exeter</st1:City>,<st1:City w:st=«on»>Hull</st1:City>, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Keele</st1:City>, <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Kent</st1:country-region> at Centerbury, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Lancaster</st1:City>,Leeds, Leicester, <st1:place w:st=«on»>Liverpool</st1:place>,
<st1:City w:st=«on»>London</st1:City>,<st1:City w:st=«on»>Manchester</st1:City>, Newcastle upon Tyne, Nottingham, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Oxford</st1:City>, <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Reading</st1:place></st1:City>,Saford,
Sheffield,Southhampton, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Surrey</st1:City>, <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Sussex</st1:country-region>,<st1:City w:st=«on»>Warwick</st1:City> and <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>York</st1:place></st1:City>. The federated Univer-
sity of <st1:country-region w:st=«on»>Wales</st1:country-region> includes five university colleges, the <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Welsh</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>National</st1:PlaceName> <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>School</st1:PlaceType></st1:place> of
Medicine,and the <st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>University</st1:PlaceType> of <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Wales</st1:PlaceName> <st1:place w:st=«on»><st1:PlaceType w:st=«on»>Institute</st1:PlaceType> of <st1:PlaceName w:st=«on»>Science</st1:PlaceName></st1:place> andTechnology.The
Scottishuniversities are: <st1:City w:st=«on»>Aberdeen</st1:City>, Dundee, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Edinburgh</st1:City>, <st1:City w:st=«on»>Belfast</st1:City>, <st1:City w:st=«on»><st1:place w:st=«on»>Glasgow</st1:place></st1:City>, He-
riot-Watt(<st1:City w:st=«on»>Edinburgh</st1:City>), St. Andrews, <st1:place w:st=«on»>Stirling</st1:place>,and Strathcl