Реферат: Нобелевская премия и ее лауреаты

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<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">        INTRODUCTION   <span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black">Nobel Prizes

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black">, annual monetary awards granted to individuals or institutionsfor outstanding contributions in the fields of physics, chemistry, physiologyor medicine, literature, international peace, and economic sciences. The Nobelprizes are internationally recognized as the most prestigious awards in each ofthese fields. The prizes were established by Swedish inventor and industrialistAlfred Bernhard Nobel, who set up a fund for them in his will. The first Nobelprizes were awarded on December 10, 1901, the fifth anniversary of Nobel’sdeath.<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black">In hiswill, Nobel directed that most of his fortune be invested to form a fund, theinterest of which was to be distributed annually «in the form of prizes tothose who, during the preceding year, shall have conferred the greatest benefiton mankind.» He stipulated that the interest be divided into five equalparts, each to be awarded to the person who made the most importantcontribution in one of five different fields. In addition to the three scientificawards and the literature award, a prize would go to the person who had done«the most or the best work for fraternity among nations, for the abolitionor reduction of standing armies, and for the holding and promotion of peacecongresses.» Nobel also specified certain institutions that would selectthe prizewinners. The will indicated that “no consideration whatever shall begiven to the nationality of the candidates, but that the most worthy shallreceive the prize.”

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<img src="/cache/referats/9942/image002.jpg" align=«left» hspace=«12» v:shapes="_x0000_s1031"><span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">Alfred Nobel

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After his own experiments led him to the lucrative invention of dynamite,Alfred Nobel established a fund to reward other innovators “contributing mostmaterially to the benefit of mankind.” The Nobel Prizes are awarded in thefields of chemistry, physics, physiology or medicine, literature, internationalpeace, and economic sciences. The awards reflect Nobel’s interests; in additionto performing valuable chemical research, he spoke several languages, traveledwidely, and wrote poetry.

In 1968 the Riksbank, the central bank of Sweden, createdan economics prize to commemorate the bank's 300th anniversary. This prize,called the Nobel Memorial Prize in Economic Science, was first awarded in 1969.The bank provides a cash award equal to the other Nobel prizes.

II       NOBEL FOUNDATION  
In 1900 the Nobel Foundation was established to manage the fund and toadminister the activities of the institutions charged with selecting winners.The fund is controlled by a board of directors, which serves for two-yearperiods and consists of six members: five elected by the trustees of theawarding bodies mentioned in the will, and the sixth appointed by the Swedishgovernment. All six members are either Swedish or Norwegian citizens.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black">In hiswill, Nobel stated that the prizes for physics and chemistry would be awardedby the Swedish Academy of Sciences, the prize for physiology or medicine by theKarolinska Institute in Stockholm, the literature prize by the Swedish Academyin Stockholm, and the peace prize by a five-person committee elected by theNorwegian Storting (Parliament). After the economics prize was created in 1968,the Swedish Academy of Sciences has held the responsibility of selecting thewinners of that award.

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<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">All the prize-awarding bodies have setup Nobel committees consisting of three to five people who make recommendationsin the selection process. Additional specialists with expertise in relevantfields assist the committees. The Nobel committees examine nominations and makerecommendations to the prize-awarding institutions. After deliberating variousopinions and recommendations, the prize-awarding bodies vote on the finalselection, and then they announce the winner. The deliberations and voting aresecret, and prize decisions cannot be appealed.

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<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">         III      PRIZES  

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black">Aprize for achievement in a particular field may be awarded to an individual,divided equally between two people, or awarded jointly among two or threepeople. According to the Nobel Foundation’s statutes, the prize cannot bedivided among more than three people, but it can go to an institution. A prizemay go unawarded if no candidate is chosen for the year under consideration,but each of the prizes must be awarded at least once every five years. If theNobel Foundation does not award a prize in a given year, the prize moneyremains in the trust. Likewise, if a prize is declined or not accepted before aspecified date, the Nobel Foundation retains the prize money in its trust.<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black">Theprize amounts are based on the annual yield of the fund capital. In 1948 Nobelprizes were about $32,000 each; in 1997 they were about $1 million each. Inaddition to a cash award, each prizewinner also receives a gold medal and adiploma bearing the winner's name and field of achievement. Prizewinners areknown as Nobel laureates.

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<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">         IV      SELECTION OF PRIZEWINNERS 
Nominations of candidates for the prizes can be madeonly by those who have received invitations to do so. In the fall of the yearpreceding the award, Nobel committees distribute invitations to members of theprize-awarding bodies, to previous Nobel prize winners, and to professors inrelevant fields at certain colleges and universities. In addition, candidatesfor the prize in literature may be proposed by invited members of variousliterary academies, institutions, and societies. Upon invitation, members ofgovernments or certain international organizations may nominate candidates forthe peace prize. The Nobel Foundation’s statutes do not allow individuals tonominate themselves. Invitations to nominate candidates and the nominationsthemselves are both confidential.

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black">Nominationsof candidates are due on February 1 of the award year. Then, Nobel committeemembers and consultants meet several times to evaluate the qualifications ofthe nominees. The various committees cast their final votes in October andimmediately notify the laureates that they have won.

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<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">       PRIZE CEREMONIES  
<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black">Theprizes are presented annually at ceremonies in Stockholm, Sweden, and in Oslo,Norway, on December 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death. In Stockholm, theking of Sweden presents the awards in physics, chemistry, physiology ormedicine, literature, and economic sciences. The peace prize ceremony takesplace at the University of Oslo in the presence of the king of Norway. Afterthe ceremonies, Nobel Prize winners give a lecture on a subject connected withtheir prize-winning work. The winner of the peace prize lectures in Oslo, theothers in Stockholm. The lectures are later printed in the Nobel Foundation'sannual publication, Les Prix Nobel(The Nobel Prizes<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">)

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Some of the recipients Recipent of theNobel prize for chemistry

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<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black">ecipient<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black;mso-ansi-language:EN-US"> <span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black"> of the Nobel Prize for economics<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

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<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black">Hayek, FriedrichAugust von

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black"> (1899-1992), Austrian-born economist and Nobel laureate. Born inVienna, von Hayek earned a doctorate at Vienna University in 1927 and spentsome years in public service. He began a long academic career by holding thepost of professor of economics and statistics at the University of London(1931-50); subsequently he was professor of moral and economic science at theUniversity of Chicago (1950-62). An economic traditionalist, von Hayek won awide reputation with The Road to Serfdom(1944), in which he argued that governments should not intervene in the controlof inflation or other economic matters. He retired in 1962 but was laterappointed professor of economics at the University of Freiburg, in West Germany(now part of Germany). Returning to Austria in 1969, he became visitingprofessor at the University of Salzburg. In 1974 he and the Swedish economistGunnar Myrdal received the Nobel Prize in economic science for their“pioneering work in the theory of money and economic <span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">lu<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black">ctuations and for their pioneering analysis of the interdependenceof economic, social, and institutional phenomena.<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black;mso-ansi-language: EN-US">   

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<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black">he <span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">R<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black">ecipient<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black;mso-ansi-language: EN-US"> <span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black"> of the Nobel Prize for literature<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

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<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black">Galsworthy, John

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black"> (1867-1933),English novelist and playwright, who was one of the most popular Englishnovelists and dramatists of the early 20th century. He was born in KingstonHills, Surrey, and educated at Harrow School and the University of Oxford. Hewas admitted to the bar in 1890 but soon abandoned law for writing. Galsworthywrote his early works under the pen name John Sinjohn. His fiction is concernedprincipally with English upper middle-class life; his dramas frequently findtheir themes in this stratum of society, but also often deal, sympathetically,with the economically and socially oppressed and with questions of socialjustice. Most of his novels deal with the history, from Victorian times throughthe first quarter of the 20th century, of an upper middle-class English family,the Forsytes. The principal member of the family is Soames Forsyte, whoexemplifies the drive of his class for the accumulation of material wealth, adrive that often conflicts with human values. The Forsyte series includes The Man of Property (1906), thenovelette “Indian Summer of a Forsyte” (pub. in the collection Five Tales,1918), In Chancery (1920), Awakening  (1920), and To Let (1921). These five titles were published as The Forsyte Saga (1922). The Forsytestory was continued by Galsworthy in TheWhite Monkey (1924), The Silver Spoon(1926), and Swan Song (1928), whichwere published together under the title AModern Comedy (1929). These were followed in turn by Maid in Waiting (1931), FloweringWilderness (1932), and Over the River(1933), published together posthumously as Endof the Chapter (1934). Among the plays by Galsworthy are Strife (1909), Justice  (1910), The Pigeon (1912), Old English (1924), and TheRoof (1929). Galsworthy was awarded the 1932 Nobel Prize in literature<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">.

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<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black">he <span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">R<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black">ecipient<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black;mso-ansi-language: EN-US"> <span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black"> of the Nobel Prize for physics<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black">Landau, LevDavidovich

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black"> (1908-68), Soviet theoretical physicist and Nobel laureate, notedchiefly for his pioneer work in low-temperature physics (cryogenics). He wasborn in Baku, and educated at the universities of Baku and Leningrad. In1937  Landau became professor oftheoretical physics at the S. I. Vavilov Institute of Physical Problems inMoscow. His development of the mathematical theories that explain howsuperfluid helium behaves at temperatures near absolute zero earned him the1962  Nobel Prize in physics. Hiswritings on a wide variety of subjects relating to physical phenomena includesome 100 papers and many books, among which is the widely known nine-volume Course of Theoretical Physics, publishedin 1943  with Y. M. Lifshitz. In January1962, he was gravely injured in an automobile accident; he was several timesconsidered near death and suffered a severe impairment of memory. By the timeof his death he had been able to make only a partial recovery<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">.<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

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<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black">he <span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">r<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black">ecipient<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black;mso-ansi-language: EN-US"> <span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black"> of the Nobel Prize for peace<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»;color:black;mso-ansi-language:EN-US">

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<img src="/cache/referats/9942/image006.jpg" align=«left» hspace=«12» v:shapes="_x0000_s1033"><span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black">Dalai Lama

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black">, spiritual leader of Tibetan Buddhism and formerly the ruler ofTibet. The Dalai Lama is believed to be a reincarnation of the Buddha. When hedies, his soul is thought to enter the body of a newborn boy, who, after beingidentified by traditional tests, becomes the new Dalai Lama.<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»">

<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black"> The first to bear the titleof Dalai Lama was Sonam Gyatso, grand lama of the Drepung monastery and leaderof the Gelugpa (Yellow Hat) sect, who received it in 1578 from the Mongol chiefAltan Khan; it was then applied retroactively to the previous leaders of thesect. In 1642 another Mongol chief, Gushri Khan, installed the fifth Dalai Lamaas Tibet's spiritual and temporal ruler. His successors governed Tibet—first astributaries of the Mongols, but from 1720 to 1911 as vassals of the emperor ofChina.

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<span Bookman Old Style",«serif»; color:black"> When the Chinese Communistsoccupied Tibet in 1950, they came into increasing conflict with Tenzin Gyatso,the 14th Dalai Lama. He left the country after an unsuccessful rebellion in1959 and thereafter lived in India. He received the Nobel Peace Prize in 1989for leading the nonviolent opposition to continued Chinese rule in Tibet. In1995 the Dalai Lama came into conflict with Chinese authorities over theidentification of a new Panchen Lama (the second most senior Tibetan religiousauthority). In 1996 he published Violenceand Compassion, in which he and French screenwriter Jean-Claude Carriиreconsider topics of political and spiritual interest

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