Реферат: Формирование грамматических навыков на начальном этапе обучения иностранному языку

Introduction.

Language is the chief means by which the human personality expressesitself and fulfills its basic need for social interaction with other persons.

The aim of the foreign language is primary schools is to develop pupils`skills and understanding English speech and participating in conversation basedon the topics covered.

Robert Lado wrote that language functions owing to the language skills.A person who knows a language perfectly uses a thousand and one grammarlexical, phonetic rules when he is speaking. Language skills help us to choosedifferent words and models in our speech.

In my diploma paper I examine the forming of grammar skills. Grammar isknown to be an important component of the language as a system. Communicativeskills without regular using grammar are limited.

It is clear that the term “grammar” has meant various things at varioustimes and sometimes several things at one time. This plurality of meaning ischaracteristic of the present time and is the source of confusions in thediscussion of grammar as part of the education of children. There have beentaking place violent disputes on the subject of teaching grammar at school.

The ability to talk about the grammar of a language, to recite itsrules, is also very different from ability to speak and understand a languageor to read and write it. Those who can use a language are often unable torecite its rules, and those who can recite its rules can be unable to use it. Nowadayswe can hear the following opinions among teachers of foreign language: Oneteacher says, “ I do not favor teachingany grammar before the fifth grade, and not much then,” another is likely toreply, “But if you do not, how will your students learn to capitalizecorrectly, to punctuate sentences, or to spell accurately?” Another teacherremarks,

“If you teach no grammar, how can youexpect to have correct usage in speech and writing?”

In the elementary grades the major emphasis will be upon the actual use,rather than upon knowledge of the language itself and attention to restrictiverules. Grammar of the analytical and structural sort will have little place orno place in the elementary grades, but the oral and written conventions ofEnglish, those which function in actual speaking and writing, will be of chiefconcern.

Grammar organizes the vocabulary and as a result we have sense units.There is a system of stereotypes, which organizes words into sentences. Butwhat skill does grammar develop?

First of all it gives the ability to make up sentences correctly, toreproduce the text adequately. (the development of practicalskills and habits)

-

The knowledge of the specificgrammar structure helps pupils point out the differences between the mothertongue and the target language.

-

The knowledge of grammardevelops abilities to abstract systematize plural facts.

Examining the problem of grammar skills we must acquire how they aredefined in literature. We must differentiate their kinds, features, and theconditions under which they are formed, the steps of forming grammar skills,and the grammar minimum for the primary school.

Learning grammar and forming grammar skillsare important tasks of the subject “Foreign language” at the primary school. Itis necessary for children not to make grammar mistakes. Roberto Lado wrote thata mistake is the wrong skill the aim of my diploma paper is to prevent childrenfrom making grammar mistakes, i.e. to form grammar skills. I think that thebest way to form grammar skills is to use a lot of training exercises andindividual approach in teaching grammar.

<img src="/cache/referats/4295/image001.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1027"><div v:shape="_x0000_s1026"> Theoretical part

The Importance of Grammar in Learning a Foreign

Language.

To judge by the way some people speak,there is no place for grammar in the language course nowadays; yet it is, inreality, as important as it ever was exercise of correct grammar, if he is toattain any skill of effective use of the language, but he need not knowconsciously formulated rules to account to him for that he does unconsciouslycorrectly.

In order to understand a language and to express oneself correctly onemust assimilate the grammar mechanism of the language studied. Indeed, one may knowall the words in a sentence and yet fail to understand it, if one does not seethe relation between the words in the given sentence. And vice versa, asentence may contain one, two, and more in known words but if one has a goodknowledge of the structure of the language one can easily guess the meaning ofthese words or at least find them in a dictionary.

No speaking is possible without the knowledge of grammar, without theforming of a grammar mechanism.

If learner has acquired such a mechanism,he can produce correct sentences in a foreign language. Paul Roberts writes: “Grammar is something that produces the sentences of a language. By something wemean a speaker of English. If you speak English natively, you have built intoyou rules of English grammar. In a sense, you are an English grammar. Youpossess, as an essential part of your being, a very complicated apparatus whichenables you to produce infinitely many sentences, all English ones, includingmany that you have never specifically learned. Furthermore by applying you ruleyou can easily tell whether a sentence that you hear a grammatical Englishsentence or not.” *1

A command of English as is envisaged by the school syllabus cannot beensured without the study of grammar. Pupils need grammar to be able to aud,speak, read, and write in the target language.

*1 Roberts P. English Sentences. New York, 1962, p.1

A Brief Review Of The MajorMethods

Of ForeignLanguage Teaching.

The grammatical systems of Russian andEnglish are fundamentally different. English is an analytical language, inwhich grammatical meaning in largely expressed through the use of additionalwords and by changes in word order. Russian is a synthetic language, in whichthe majority of grammatical forms are created through changes in the structure of words, by means of a developedsystem of prefixes, suffixes and ending. ( p. 121,

Brown C. and Jule “Teaching the spokenlanguage”, Cambridge, 1983)

No one knows exactly how people learn languages although a great deal ofresearch has been done into the subject.

Many methods have been proposed for the teaching of foreign language.And they have met with varying degrees of success and failure.

We should know that the method by which children are taught must havesome effect on their motivation. If they find it deadly boring they willprobably become de-motivated, whereas if they have confidence in the methodthey will find it motivating. Child learners differ from adult learners in manyways. Children are curious, their attention is of a shorter duration, they arequite differently motivated in, their interests are less specialized. They needfrequent of activity; they need activities which are exciting and stimulatingtheir curiosity; they need to be involved in something active.

We shall examine such methods as “The Grammar – Translation Method”,”The Direct Method”, “The Audio-lingual Method”. And we pay attention to theteaching grammar of the foreign language. We shall comment those methods, whichhave had a long history.

The GrammarTranslation method will be discussed.

This method was widely used in teaching the classics, namely Latin, andit was transferred to the teaching of modern languages when they wereintroduced into schools

In the grammar-translation mode, the books begin with definitions of the parts of speech, declensions, conjugations, rules to be memorized, examples illustrating the rules, and exceptions. Often each unit has a paragraph to be translated into the target language and one to be translated into native one. These paragraphs illustrate the grammar rules studied in the unit. The student is expected to apply the rules on his own. This involves a complicated mental manipulation of the conjugations and declensions in the order memorized, down to the form that might fit the translation. As a result, students are unable to use the language, and they sometimes develop an inferiority complex about languages in general. Exceptionally bright and diligent students do learn languages by this method, or in spite of it, but they would learn with any method.

(R.Lado)

Brown H., Douglas ‘Principles of language teaching’, N.Y., 1987

<img src="/cache/referats/4295/image006.gif" align=«left» hspace=«12» Brown H., Douglas ‘Principles of >Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of word. Reading of difficult classical texts is begun early. Little attention is paid to the content of texts, which are treated as exercises in grammatical analysis. Often the only drills are exercises in translating disconnected sentences from the target language into the mother tongue. Little or no attention is given to pronunciation. <img src="/cache/referats/4295/image007.gif" align=«left» hspace=«12» 1. Classes are taught in the mother tongue, with little active use of the target language. 2. Much vocabulary is taught in the form of lists of isolated words. 3. Long elaborate explanations of the intricacies of grammar are given. 4. Grammar provides the rules for putting words together, and instruction often focuses on the form and inflection of word. 5. Reading of difficult >We list the majorcharacteristics of Grammar Translation.

The grammar-translation method is largely discredited today. Withgreater interest in modern languages for communication the inadequacy ofgrammar-translation methods became evident.

TheDirect Method.

The Direct Method appeared as a reactionagainst the grammar-translation method.

There was a movement in Europe that emphasized language learning bydirect contact with the foreign language in meaningful situations. Thismovement resulted in various individual methods with various names, such as newmethod, natural method, and even oral method, but they can all be referred toas direct methods or the direct method. In addition to emphasizing directcontact with the foreign language, the direct method usually deemphasized oreliminated translation and the memorization of conjugations, declensions, andrules, and in some cases it introduced phonetics and phonetic transcription.

The direct method assumed that learning a foreign language is the sameas learning the mother tongue, that is, that exposing the student directly tothe foreign language impresses it perfectly upon his mind. This is true only upto a point, since the psychology of learning a second language differs fromthat of learning the first. The child is forced to learn the first languagebecause he has no other effective way to express his wants. In learning asecond language this compulsion is largely missing, since the student knows thathe can communicate through his native language when necessary.

1.

Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and student in small, intensive classes. Grammar was taught inductively, i.e. the learner may discover the rules of grammar for himself after he has become acquainted with many examples. New teaching points were introduced orally. Concrete vocabulary was taught through demonstration, objects, and pictures; abstract vocabulary was taught by association of ideas. Both speech and listening comprehension were taught. Correct pronunciation and grammar were emphasized.

<img src="/cache/referats/4295/image008.gif" align=«left» hspace=«12» 1. Classroom instruction was conducted exclusively in the target language. 2. Only everyday vocabulary and sentences were taught. 3. Oral communication skills were built up in a carefully graded progression organized around question-and-answer exchanges between teachers and student in small, intensive > The basic premise of Direct Method was thatsecond language learning should be more like first language learning: lots ofactive oral interaction, spontaneous use of the language, no translationbetween first and second languages, and little or no analysis of grammaticalrules. We can summarize the principles of the Direct

Method:

The Direct Method enjoyed considerable popularity through the end ofnineteenth century and well into this one.

Now we shall discuss “The Audiolingual Method”.

The Audiolingual Method (It is alsocalled Mimicry-memorization method) was the method developed in the IntensiveLanguage Program. It was successful because of high motivation, intensivepractice, small classes, and good models, in addition to linguisticallysophisticated descriptions of the foreign language and its grammar.

1.

New material is presented in dialog form. There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and overlearning. Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. There is a little or no grammatical explanation: grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than deductive explanation. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. There is much use of tapes, language labs, and visual aids. Great importance is attached to pronunciation. very little use of the mother tongue by teachers is permitted. Successful responses are immediately reinforced. There is a great effort to get students to produce error-free utterances. There is a tendency to manipulate language and disregard content.

<img src="/cache/referats/4295/image009.gif" align=«left» hspace=«12» 1. New material is presented in dialog form. 2. There is dependence on mimicry, memorization of set phrases and overlearning. 3. Structures are sequenced by means of contrastive analysis and taught one at a time. 4. Structural patterns are taught using repetitive drills. 5. There is a little or no grammatical explanation: grammar is taught by inductive analogy rather than deductive explanation. 6. Vocabulary is strictly limited and learned in context. 7. There is much use of tapes, > Grammar is taught essentially as follows:Some basic sentences are memorized by imitation. Their meaning is given innormal expressions in the native language, and the students are not expected totranslate word for word. When the basic sentences have been overlearned(completely memorized so that the student can rattle them off without effort),the student reads fairly extensive descriptive grammar statements in his nativelanguage, with examples in the target language and native language equivalents.He then listens to further conversational sentences for practice in listening.Finally, practices the dialogues using the basic sentences and combinations oftheir parts. When he can, he varies the dialogues within the material hr hasalready learned. The characteristics of ALM may be summed up in the followinglist:

Grammar explanations as used inthe major methods.

We shall briefly review the treatment of grammatical explanations bysome of the major methods. This is not meant to be an exhaustive study of allavailable methods; rather it is an attempt to show the variety of ways in whichdifferent methods deal with grammar explanations and may help teachers inevaluating available materials.

1.

Grammar translation is associated withformal rule statement. Learning proceeds, deductively, and the rule is generallystated by the teacher, in a textbook, or both. Traditional abstract grammaticalterminology is used. Drills include translation into native language.

2.

The direct method is characterized bymeaningful practice and exclusion of the mother tongue. This method has hadmany interpretations, some of which include an analysis of structure, butgenerally without the use of abstract grammatical terminology.

3.

Table

The audio-lingual method stresses an inductive presentation with extensive pattern practice.Writing is discouraged in the early stages of learning a structure. Here again,there has bee considerable variation in the realization of this approach. Insome cases, no grammatical explanation of any kind is offered. In other, theteacher might focus on a particular structure by isolating an example on theboard, or through contrast. When grammatical explanation is offered it isusually done at the end of the lesson as a summary of behavior (Politzer,1965), or in later versions of this method the rule might be stated in themiddle of the lesson and followed by additional drills.

Conscious grammar explanation

Isolation

(rule of structure)

Deductive or Inductive presentation

The “explainer”

Language type used for explanation

Oral or written explanation

Grammar-translation

Yes

Deductive

Book and/or teacher

Abstract

Written

Direct method

Yes or no

Yes

Inductive (if at all)

Teacher (when done)

Non-abstract

Oral-written

Audio-lingual

Yes or no

Yes

Inductive

Teacher

Example or non-abstract

Oral-written

Each method is realized in techniques. By a technique we mean anindividual way in doing something, in gaining a certain goal in teachinglearning process. The method and techniques the teacher should use in teachingchildren of the primary school is thedirect method, and various techniques which can develop pupils` listeningcomprehension and speaking. Pupils are given various exercises, connected withthe situational use of words and sentence patterns.

Teaching grammar patterns.

We’ll examine «Teaching GrammaticalPatterns» by Robert Lado (Chapter 10 «From Sentences toPatterns»)

Robert Lado thinks that even children whohave never studied the rules grammar make use of the grammar of the language.This is seen in the mistakes they make. When a child says, He goed, heis forming a «regular» preterite on the pattern: showed, weighed,served: «goed.» His error reveals the fact that he has beenapplying the pattern even though he is not able to describe it.

Patterns andSentences

Agrammaticalpattern is an arrangement of parts having linguistic significance beyond thesum of its parts. The parts of a pattern are expressed by words or classes ofwords so that different sentences often express the same pattern. All thesentences of a language arc cast in its patterns.

John telephoned, The boy studied.

We understood are different sentencesexpressing the same statement pattern in English.

A pattern is not a sentence, however.Sentences express patterns. Each sentence illustrates a pattern. To memorize asentence does not imply that a pattern has been memorized. There can becountless sentences, each unique, yet all constructed on the same pattern.

Patterns andGrammar

Children learn the grammatical patterns oftheir language before they study grammar in school. When a child says goedinstead of went or knowed instead of knew, he is applyingthe regular preterite pattern on the analogy,

open: opened = go: goed

Patterns arclearned in childhood. Adults no longer have to learn new patterns; they learnnew words that are used in old patterns. That the old patterns are alive isshown by putting unknown words and phrases into them.

And what is the role of thenative language in learning the patterns of a foreign language?

Native Language Factor

The most important factor determining ease and difficulty in learningthe patterns of a foreign language is their similarity to or difference from thepatterns of the native language. When the pattern in the target language isparallel to one in the native language, the student merely learns new wordswhich he puts into what amounts to an extended use of his native pattern. Sincehis word learning capacity is not lost, he makes rapid progress. When, however,the native language pattern does not parallel that of the target language, thestudent tends to revert to his native language patterns through habit.

Grading thePatterns

There is no single grading scale forteaching the patterns of a foreign language. Any systematic cumulativeprogression, taking into account the structures that are difficult, would besatisfactory from a linguistic point of view.

Pattern-practice

Approach The mimicry-memorization exercisetends to give the same amounts of practice to easy as well as difficultproblems. It also concentrates unduly on the memorization of specificsentences, and not enough on the manipulation of the patterns of sentences in avariety of content situations. For those patterns that arc functionallyparallel to the native language, very little work needs to be done, and verylittle or no explanation is necessary. On the other hand, for those patternsthat are not parallel in the two languages, more specific understanding of thegrammatical structure points at issue is needed while the sentences arelearned and not before or after. And more practice with the pattern isnecessary before it is learned, that is, used without

attention toits structure.

Basic sentences

The memorization of samplesentences that contain the grammatical problems to he mastered is common toboth pattern practice and mimicry-memorization. For this practice there isample justification in linguistics and in psychology. The utterances have tobecome readily available if the student is to use them in the rapid sequence ofconversation.

Teaching thepatterns

A sentence can be learned as a singleunstructured unit like a word, but this is only the beginning. The studentmust acquire the habit of constructing sentences in the patterns of the targetlanguage. For this he must be able to put words almost automatically into apattern without changing it, or to change it by making the necessaryadjustments.

Teaching a.problem pattern begins with teaching the specific structure points where aformal change in the pattern is crucial and where the student is not able tomanipulate the required changes. The steps in teaching problem patterns are (1)attention pointer, usually a single sentence calling the students'attention to the point at issue; (2) examples, usually minimallycontrastive examples showing a pair of sentences that differ only on the pointor points being made; (3) repetition by the class and presentation of additionalexamples of the same contrast;

(4) commentsor generalization elicited inductively from the students and confirmedby the teacher; (5) practice, with attention on the problem beingtaught.

These steps an intended to clarify thecrucial point of contrast at the time when sentences are being learned. Theyshould take only a small portion of the class time—no more than 15 per cent.

Robert Lado accents that many teachers makethe mistake of trying to explain everything at length while the class listenspassively. Long explanations withoutactive practice arc a waste of time, and even with practice they are inefficient. Most of the class should be devotedto practice. The following are briefdescriptions of some of the more effective types of exercises.

The more effective types ofexercises according to R.Lado:

·

Listening

It isunderstood that the student does not invent the target language. He must listen to good models. Random listening helps, but selectivelistening following instructions is more effective. Listening is assumed to hemost effective when it is in preparation for speaking.

Listening can be combined with other activities.

·

Oral repetition In this practice the student repeats the pattern sentences providedorally by the model. This is the most basic and important of all exercises. Itbegins with the presentation of the very first sentence of the pattern, thebasic sentence, and continues through all other examples of the pattern taughtfor speaking.

·

Oral substitution Once the student can speak the basic sentence by repetition, oralsubstitution becomes the most useful and powerful drill available to practicethe pattern. It is fast, flexible, and versatile, and it approximatesconversational use of the language. Several variations are described for thereader: simple substitution, substitution in variable position, substitutionthat forces a change, substitution requiring a change, and multiple substitution.

·

Transformation

·

Speech practice and etc.

1. Lado R. and Fries C.C. “English pattern practice. Establishing the patterns as habits.”, 1970. pXV

<img src="/cache/referats/4295/image011.gif" align=«left» hspace=«12» v:shapes="_x0000_s1038"><img src="/cache/referats/4295/image012.gif" align=«left» hspace=«12» v:shapes="_x0000_s1037">The idea of learning the pattern rather than justsentences is clearly stated by C.C.Fries. Carles Fries and Robert Lado wrotewhat “We offer them [patterns] with confidence in their extraordinaryeffectiveness. They represent a new theory of language learning,the idea thatto learn a new language one must established orally the patterns of thelanguage as subconscious habits.”*1 C.C.Fries thinks that one must practice the patterns of thelanguage until he can use them little or no effort.

The Psychologicalcharacteristics of grammar skills.

To develop one’s speech means to acquireessential patterns of speech, and grammar patterns in particular. Children mustuse these items automatically during speech-practice. The automatic use ofgrammar items in our speech (oral and written) supposes mastering someparticular skills – the skills of using grammar items to express one’s ownthoughts,in other words to make up your sentences.

We must get so-called reproductiveor active grammar skills.

A skill is treated as anautomatic part of awareness. Automatization of the action is the main featureof a skill.

The nature of automatization ischaracterized by that psychological structure of the action which adopts to theconditions of performing the action owing frequent experience. The actionbecomes more frequent, correct and accurate and the number of the operations isshortened while forming the skill the character of awareness of the action ischanging, i.e. fullness of understanding is paid to the conditions and qualityof performing to the control over it and regulation.

To form some skills is necessary to know that the process of the formingskills has some steps:

1.

Only some definite elements of the action are automatic.

2.

The automatization occurs under more difficult conditions, when thechild can’t concentrate his attention on one element of the action.

3.

The whole structure of the action is improved and the automatizationof its separate components is completed.

What features do the productive grammar skills have?

During our speech the reproductive grammar skills are formed togetherwith lexics and intonation, they must express the speakers intentions.

The actions in the structural setting of the lexics must be learnt.

The characteristic feature of the reproductive grammar skills is theirflexibility. It doesn`t depend on the level of automatization, i.e. onperfection of skill here mean the original action: both the structure of sentence,and forms of the words are reproduced by the speaker using different lexicalmaterial. If the child reproduces sentences and different words, which havebeen learnt by him as “a ready-made thing” he can say that there is no grammarskill. Learning the ready-made forms, word combinations and sentences occurs inthe same way as learning lexics.

The grammar skill is based on the general conclusion. The grammar actioncan and must occur only in the definite lexical limits, on the definite lexicalmaterial. If the pupil can make up his sentence frequently, accurately andcorrectly from the grammatical point of view, he has got the grammar skill.

Teaching grammar at school using the theoretical knowledge brought somecritical and led to confusion. All the grammatical rules were considered to beevil and there were some steps to avoid using them at school.

But when we learn grammatical items in models we use substitution andsuch a type of training gets rid of grammar or “neutralize” it. By he way,teaching the skills to make up sentences by analogy is a step on the way offorming grammar skills. It isn’t the lexical approach to grammar and it isn’tneutralization of grammar, but using basic sentences in order to use exercisesby analogy and to reduce number of grammar rules when forming the reproductivegrammar skills.

To form the reproductive grammar skills we must follow such steps:

1.

Selection the model of sentence.

2.

Selection the form of the word and образование словоформ.

3.

Selection the auxiliary words-preposition, articles, and etc. andtheir combination with principle words.

The main difficulty of the reproductive (active) grammar skills is tocorrespond the purposes of the statement, communicative approach (a questionèan answer and so on), words, meanings, expressed by the grammaticalpatterns. In that case we use basic sentences, in order to answer the definitesituation.

The main factor of the forming of the reproductive grammar skill is thatpupils need to learn the lexic of the language. They need to learn the meaningsof the words and how they are used. We must be sure that our pupils are awareof the vocabulary they need at their level and they can use the words in orderto form their own sentence. Each sentence contains a grammar structure. Themastering the grammar skill lets pupils save time and strength, energy, whichcan give opportunity to create. Learning a number of sentences containing thesame grammatical structure and a lot of words containing the same grammaticalform isn’t rational.

But the generalization of the grammar item can relieve the work of themental activity and let the teacher speed up the work and the children realizecreative activities.

The process of creation is connected with the mastering of some speechstereotypes the grammatical substrat is hidden in basic sentences. Grammar ispresented as itself. Such a presentation of grammar has its advantage: thegrammar patterns of the basic sentences are connected with each other. But thisapproach gives pupils the opportunity to realize the grammar item better. Theteaching must be based on grammar explanations and grammar rules. Grammar rulesare to be understood as a special way of expressing communicative activity. Thereproductive grammar skills suppose to master the grammar actions which arenecessary for expressing thoughts in oral and written forms.

The automatic perception of the text supposes the reader to identify thegrammar form according to the formal features 9 words, word combinations,sentences) which must be combined with the definite meaning. One must learn therules in order to identify different grammatical forms. Pupils should get toknow their features, the ways of expressing them in the language. We teachchildren to read and aud by means of grammar. It reveals the relation betweenwords in the sentence. Grammar is of great important when one teaches readingand auding.

The forming of the perceptive grammar and reproductive skills is quitedifferent. The steps of the work is mastering the reproductive skills differfrom the steps in mastering the perceptive skills. To master the reproductivegrammar skills one should study the basic sentences or models. To master theperceptive grammar skills one should identify and analyze the grammar item.

Though training is of great importance to realize the grammar item.

Introducing new language structure.

We will consider ways in which childrencan be introduced to new language structure.

Theimportance of language awareness

Whenwe present grammar through structural patterns we tend to give students tidypieces of language to work with We introduce grammar, which can easily beexplained and presented. There are many different ways of doing this, which donot (only) involve the transmission of grammar rules.

It iscertainly possible to teach aspects of grammar — indeed that is what languageteachers have been doing for centuries — but language is a difficult businessand it is often used very inventively by its speakers, In other words reallanguage use is often very untidy and cannot be automatically reduced to simplegrammar patterns. Students need to be aware of this, justas they need to be aware of alllanguage possibilities. Such awareness does not mean that they have to betaught each variation and linguistic twist, however. It just means that theyhave to be aware of language and how it is used. That is why reading andlistening are so important, and that is why discovery activities are sovaluable since by asking students to discover ways in which language is used wehelp to raise their awareness about the creative use of grammar — amongst otherthings.

As teachers we should be prepared to use avariety of techniques to help our students learn and acquire grammar. Sometimesthis involves teaching grammar rules; sometimes it means allowing students todiscover the rules for themselves.

What do weintroduce?

Our job at this stage of the lesson is topresent the pupils with clear information about the language they arelearning. We must also show them whatthe language means and how it is used; we must also show them what thegrammatical form of the new language is, and how it is said and/or written.

Whatwe are suggesting here is that students need to get an idea of how he newlanguage is used by native speakers and the best way of doing this s to presentlanguage in context.

Thecontext for introducing new language should have a number of characteristics Itshould show what the new language means and how it is used, for example. Thatis why many useful contexts have the new language being used in a writtentext or dialogue.

Agood context should be interesting for the children. This doesn't mean that allthe subject matter we use for presentation should be wildly funny or inventiveall of the time. But the pupils should at least want to see or hear theinformation.

Lastly, a good context will provide the background for a lot of languageuse so that students can use the information not only for the repetition ofmodel sentences but also for making their own sentences.

Often the textbook will have all the characteristics mentioned here andthe teacher can confidently rely on the material for the presentation. But thetextbook is not always so appropriate: for a number of reasons the informationin the book may not be right for our students in such cases we will want tocreate our own contexts for language use.

Types of context

Context

means thesituation or body of information, which causes language to be used. There are anumber of different context types, but for our purposes we will concentrate onthree, the students' world, the outside world and formulatedinformation.

The students' world can be a major source ofcontexts for language presentation. There are two kinds of students' world.Clearly we can use the physical surroundings that the students are in — the classroom, school or institution. But classrooms and their physicalproperties (tables, chairs, windows, etc.) are limited. The students' livesare not constrained in the same way, however, and we can use facts about them,their families, friends and experiences.

The outside world provides us with richcontexts for presentation For example, there is an almost infinite number of storieswe can use to present different lenses. We can also create situationswhere people speak because they are in those situations, or where the writerdescribes some special information. This is especially useful for the practiceof functional language, for example.

We can ask students to look at examplesof language which show the new language in operation, though this lastcategory can sometimes have no context. These three sub-categories, story,situation or language, can be simulated or real. Most teachersare familiar with 'made-up' stones which arc often useful for classwork: realstories work well too, of course. In the same way we can create the simulationof an invitation dialogue, for example. But here again we could also showstudents a real invitation dialogue. In general we can say that real contextsare better simply because they are real, but they may have complexities oflanguage and comprehensibility which can be avoided by simulated contexts — life-like but clearly mode-up to some extent.

Formulated information

refers to all that information which is presented in the form of timetables,notes, charts etc. Once again we can use real charts and timetables, growthstatistics, etc. or we can design our own which will be just right for ourstudents.

There are variations on these differentkinds of context, of course, but we can broadly summarize what we have said sofar in the following way:

Context

The outside world

The student’s world

Formulated information

Physical surroundings

Student’s lives

Stories

Situations

Language examples

Figure 1 <img src="/cache/referats/4295/image014.gif" v:shapes="_x0000_s1042 _x0000_s1043 _x0000_s1045 _x0000_s1046 _x0000_s1047 _x0000_s1048 _x0000_s1049 _x0000_s1050 _x0000_s1051 _x0000_s1052 _x0000_s1053 _x0000_s1054 _x0000_s1055 _x0000_s1056 _x0000_s1057 _x0000_s1058 _x0000_s1059 _x0000_s1060 _x0000_s1061 _x0000_s1062 _x0000_s1063 _x0000_s1064 _x0000_s1065 _x0000_s1066 _x0000_s1067 _x0000_s1068 _x0000_s1069 _x0000_s1070 _x0000_s1071 _x0000_s1072 _x0000_s1073 _x0000_s1074 _x0000_s1075 _x0000_s1076 _x0000_s1077 _x0000_s1078 _x0000_s1079 _x0000_s1080 _x0000_s1081 _x0000_s1082 _x0000_s1083 _x0000_s1084 _x0000_s1085 _x0000_s1086 _x0000_s1087 _x0000_s1088 _x0000_s1089 _x0000_s1090 _x0000_s1092 _x0000_s1115">

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